You'd hardly expect there to be an EPA report on candles, but there is one. That's because while candles are a very popular holiday gift, unfortunately, they're also usually very toxic. In fact, burning a candle for an hour is the equivalent of smoking a cigarette due to the toxins present in them! Candles have been acknowledged to be sources of indoor pollution that can release carcinogens into the air. They're so toxic that I would recommend stopping using conventional candles immediately, and using lower-toxicity alternatives if you'd still like to have candles.
Some candle wicks can release toxic chemicals into the air when burned. Lead, which is used in candle wicks as a stiffener, is released into the air when the candle is burned. Countries like the United States, Australia, those in the European Union, New Zealand, and a few others have banned lead core candle wicks, but others like China and Mexico still allow them. Lead is an extremely dangerous neurotoxin, carcinogen, and reproductive toxin, so the fact that many candles still contain it is very concerning. Zinc and tin are used as lead substitutes to provide support in candle wicks. Burning zinc and tin can release small amounts of lead as well, however, because metals like these contain low levels of lead impurities. The best candle wicks are made of organic or at least untreated cotton, hemp, or wood.
The waxes used to make candle bases are also problematic. Paraffin wax is the most common and also the worst kind. Paraffin is made from the fossil fuel petroleum. When paraffin candles are burned, they release several toxic chemicals into the air. One kind of these is volatile organic compounds (VOCs), many of which are toxins that are linked to a variety of short-term health impacts like eye and throat irritation and headaches and long-term impacts like cancer and organ harm. Paraffin candles can release the VOCs toluene, which is harmful to the brain, respiratory system, heart, liver, and fetuses and can cause cancer, styrene, which has been linked to leukemia and lymphoma, miscarriage, nervous system harm, and depression, and benzene, a carcinogen that can harm blood, the nervous system, and the female reproductive system, among other effects. Dioxins, which are endocrine disruptors, carcinogens, and reproductive toxins, are also emitted. Burning paraffin wax candles has also been found to release polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, such as naphthalene, many of which can cause DNA damage, cancer, fetal abnormalities, immune system harm, irritation, inflammation, kidney and liver harm, respiratory problems, and red blood cell death. These aren't the only toxic chemicals that can be released. Palm wax candles can emit similar chemicals to paraffin, even when unscented, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, toluene, and formaldehyde.
Soy wax is a better option than paraffin, but it also has issues. Sometimes even in candles labeled "soy," pure soy is not used, so it's important to check the composition of the candle base. In addition, to avoid pesticide exposure, you should ensure that the soybeans used are organic. Soy wax can release VOCs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Another issue with soy candles is that the processing of soy to make it into candle wax involves hexane, chlorine, and boric acid, which makes soy candles unable to be classified as organic. Hexane has been linked to harm to the nervous system, lungs, and male reproductive system, and potentially cancer. Boric acid can damage most tissues it comes into contact with.
Beeswax is a safe wax. It even makes candles last longer than paraffin! However, beeswax candles are similar to soy wax ones in that they can be labeled as beeswax even if they actually contain a mixture of waxes, instead of pure beeswax. Make sure you look at the composition to ensure the candle only contains beeswax. Avoid beeswax that's been treated or chemically bleached (to prevent some of the treatment issues seen in soy). Coconut wax is also safe. It lasts longer than paraffin and soy waxes. Coconut wax is usually used in a blend of other waxes in candles, but it's occasionally used alone, too. Both coconut wax alone and a coconut and beeswax blend are nontoxic, but make sure to avoid any other waxes being included. Again, try to pick non-treated coconut wax and oil. Choosing organic waxes is best to avoid pesticide exposure if possible. In beeswax, this means that the bees that made the wax were fed with organic plants, and hormones and antibiotics weren't used. Coconut wax is usually produced by mixing coconut oil and another wax. To be organic, both the coconut oil and the other wax, preferably beeswax, would have to be organic, which unfortunately makes organic coconut wax rare. Make sure the product is truly organic by checking for a third-party certification label, like the USDA Organic one.
Most colored candles are dyed with petroleum or coal tar products, which are fossil fuels. This can be dangerous because burning fossil fuels releases toxic chemicals like VOCs into the air. Azo dyes, which are made from petroleum, are used to color candles. Some azo dyes are carcinogenic and harmful to the nervous system, DNA, liver, spleen, blood, stomach, testicles, kidneys, behavior, and fetuses. Azo dyes can also produce benzidine, which is associated with cancer in the urinary system. Other azo dye components are allergens. Another kind of candle dye is aniline, made from coal tar. Aniline can harm the blood's ability to deliver oxygen to the body and lower red blood cell levels, and it's been linked to birth defects. Aniline is also likely a carcinogen and can irritate the respiratory system, eyes, and skin. Overall, it's best to avoid dyed candles.
The fragrances used in most candles are also dangerous. Burning fragranced candles releases a type of VOC, aldehydes, including acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and acrolein, which can have a variety of harmful health effects including cancer, reproductive harm, respiratory issues, and nervous system damage. It's important to note that though aldehyde emissions are generally much higher in fragranced candles, even unscented candles release them (from the wax or other ingredients). Maybe even worse, some scented candles emit VOCs even when they're not lit. As with many other household products, candles very often contain the ingredient "parfum" or "fragrance." This isn't actually an ingredient, but rather a mixture of ingredients that companies don't have to disclose by using the label "fragrance." Fragrance can contain over 4,000 chemicals, many of which are very toxic. 95% of chemicals in fragrance are made from petroleum and coal tar. It can include phthalates, which are endocrine-disrupting toxins that harm the kidneys, liver, lungs, and reproductive and nervous systems and cause cancer, among other effects. You can read more about phthalates here. Fragrance also commonly contains VOCs, and other neurotoxins and carcinogens. Many chemicals in fragrance have been linked to developmental issues, depression, fetal harm, diabetes, allergic reactions, weight gain, high blood pressure, asthma, infertility, and other reproductive problems. Air fresheners similarly cause issues, as they also usually have fragrance, if they're not solely composed of it.
Essential oils are oils extracted from plant leaves, roots, flowers, peels, seeds, or bark. They're different from fragrance because they're not synthetic and they aren't mixtures of dangerous chemicals, but it's important to ensure that any essential oils in a product are truly essential oils and don't contain any additives. Steam distillation and cold pressing are safe methods to extract the oils. Chemically extracted essential oils (like with hexane) should not be used. Additionally, you should ensure that candles are composed of just essential oils (and wax), because most companies who don't specify this use synthetic fragrance. Make sure there is an ingredient label that fully discloses all ingredients and lists the Latin name of the plants the oils were extracted from and what part of the plant was used. Essential oils don't have to disclose ingredients, so it's important to be sure any essential oils used are pure (and don't just say they are!). While essential oils, especially organic ones, are the best and safest way to scent candles, there are some concerns with young children inhaling some of them. Babies under three months old, or premature babies under three months past their due date, should not be exposed to essential oils. In children under three years old, peppermint oil can increase the risk of seizure. Eucalyptus oil is similar. Marjoram and rosemary oils should not be used in children under six due to respiratory concerns. Additionally, anise or aniseed and fennel shouldn't be used in children under five, and niaouli shouldn't be used with children under six years old. Pets can also have sensitivities that should be checked before using essential oils. There have been some studies showing that essential oils release dangerous VOCs. However, these studies don't specify what kinds of essential oils they tested, so it is a possibility that they weren't testing true essential oils, but rather substances made of fragrance or other harmful additives that were called essential oils. Some do say they included essential oils labeled as "certified organic," and if there was an actual certification, this could be a cause for concern. Studies on essential oils produced by steam distillation and cold pressing from pesticide-free sources have shown the presence of chemicals that can cause cancer, nervous system problems, endocrine disruption, liver harm, reproductive issues, irritation, and DNA damage, including some chemicals found in the VOC studies, in some essential oils, suggesting that there is some danger in exposure to some essential oils, even when they're real ones. This could be due to the increased concentrations of naturally occurring chemicals or the use of non-edible plant parts in essential oils. Some of the oils containing these toxins, many at very high levels, are orange, thyme, basil, parsley, dill seed, fennel, clary sage, oregano, anise, eucalyptus, tarragon, and cinnamon.
Candles can deposit soot, or particulate matter, produced from incomplete or unbalanced elements in combustion, around your house. Soot is released into the air when candles are burned, especially when the candle contains more fragrance. It can build up in the air and accumulate on surfaces. Soot from candles can contain paraffin, phthalates, toluene, benzene, lead, and styrene, and it's likely a carcinogen. Its small size also allows soot particles to penetrate the respiratory system. Long-term exposure to soot can lead to cardiovascular and respiratory issues. Beeswax and coconut wax candles produce less soot, and extinguishing the candle wick in the melted wax and keeping the candle wick trimmed can also help. Cotton or hemp wicks also produce less soot than wooden ones.
Incense is not a good substitute for candles. Burning incense can release benzene, and the smoke has been linked to cancer (including childhood cancer), asthma, irritation, and gene damage. It also releases carbon monoxide, which can harm the body's ability to transport oxygen, and produces soot, which can contain polyaromatic hydrocarbons, a set of dangerous chemicals linked to cancer and organ damage, among other effects. Wax melts, however, can be a great alternative to candles, especially if you'd like to avoid an open flame or wicks. However, the scent molecules in wax melts evaporate into the air when they're used, so it's important to use wax melts with essential oils or no scent, to avoid the issues with fragrance already discussed. It's unclear whether the kind of wax used in wax melts matters, because the wax is only melted, not burned like in candles, but to be safe, I would recommend using wax melts made of beeswax and coconut wax.
In terms of the least toxic candles, the absolute best choice is currently an unscented, certified organic beeswax or coconut wax candle. These are hard to find because organic wax is rarer. Happy Flame does make them, though! Their candles are composed of just pure beeswax and a cotton wick. Their beeswax is certified organic by the organization Australian Certified Organic. The candles aren't scented, so you don't have to worry about fragrance or essential oils. If you were hoping for a scent, though, beeswax naturally has a slightly floral or honey aroma! The cotton wicks are bleached, but they're cleaned after that to remove the chemicals and when Happy Flame tested their candles, they found no traceable levels of any chemicals. For scented candles (and wax melts), Fontana Candle Company and Natural Sloth are both good options. Some of each of their products are Made Safe certified, which means they're free from a wide range of toxins and each product's ingredients were screened for potential health impacts. Fontana Candle Company candles are made with only non-organic beeswax, coconut oil, steam distilled and cold pressed essential oils, and wooden wicks. Natural Sloth candles are made with some organic essential oils and some non-organic, all of them steam distilled or cold pressed. Most of their products use wooden wicks, but one uses an organic cotton one, and their waxes are made from non-organic beeswax and organic coconut oil. There are no harmful additives in either of these brands. There are two candle companies, Meaningful Mantras and Pure Plant Home, that make pure coconut wax candles. The coconut oil used isn't organic, however. They also both use non-organic essential oils, some steam distilled and cold pressed, to scent their products and unbleached cotton wicks. They don't specify some candles' ingredient lists, so be careful which ones you choose if you decide to go with these brands.
While there are certainly safer candles, overall, it's better to limit your exposure to them. Many of the chemicals discussed are released at levels already above recommended levels (and several of these chemicals are so dangerous that there's no safe level), and it's also important to consider that candles aren't the only sources of indoor pollution or these toxins. Multiple sources' exposure can build up. To summarize, unscented candles are safer than scented ones. Among scented candles, those scented with true essential oils are far better than ones that use "fragrance" or synthetic chemicals, but some essential oils can also contain naturally occurring toxins. The safest kinds of waxes are beeswax and coconut wax, preferably organic. When using candles, try to burn them in well-ventilated rooms or with doors and windows open, and take steps to prevent the release of soot. There aren't yet perfect options for safe candles, but there are better ones! I highly recommend switching to a lower-toxicity candle to help protect your health.
Here's where I got some of this info!
Candles and Incense as Potential Sources of Indoor Air Pollution: Market Analysis and Literature Review (epa.gov)
Emission of air pollutants from burning candles with different composition in indoor environments - PubMed (nih.gov)
The Impact of Candle Burning During All Saints’ Day Ceremonies on Ambient Alkyl-Substituted Benzene Concentrations | Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (springer.com)
Emission of air pollutants from burning candles with different composition in indoor environments (researchgate.net)
Amended final report on the safety assessment of Oryza Sativa (rice) Bran Oil, Oryza Sativa (rice) Germ Oil, Rice Bran Acid,Oryza Sativa (rice) Bran Wax, Hydrogenated Rice Bran Wax, Oryza Sativa (rice)Bran Extract, Oryza Sativa (rice) Extract, Oryza Sativa (rice) Germ Powder, Oryza Sativa (rice) Starch, Oryza Sativa (rice) Bran, Hydrolyzed Rice Bran Extract, Hydrolyzed Rice Bran Protein, Hydrolyzed Rice Extract, and Hydrolyzed Rice Protein - PubMed (nih.gov)
Circulating levels of phthalate metabolites are associated with prevalent diabetes in the elderly - PubMed (nih.gov)
Chemical found in perfumes and cosmetics linked to weight gain, type-2 diabetes: study | Globalnews.ca
Scented Candles as an Unrecognized Factor that Increases the Risk of Bladder Cancer | Cancer Prevention Research | American Association for Cancer Research (aacrjournals.org)
Fontana Comes Clean Q&A: Why we don't use Organic Beeswax & Coconut Oil – Fontana Candle Co (fontanacandlecompany.com)
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