Fabric fibers go through a lot before they become clothing. In the production of textiles, fibers are harvested or produced, cleaned, bleached, brightened, dyed or printed on, and finished. Each of these stages uses a variety of chemicals, many of which are harmful to humans. There can be 50 or more chemicals on a single piece of clothing, built up from the various stages of processing in clothing manufacturing, and exposure to clothing is almost constant. This makes minimizing toxins in clothing essential.
Many kinds of dyes are used to color fabric. 60 to 70% of textiles are dyed with azo dyes. Some azo dyes and their breakdown products can damage DNA and cells, alter gene expression (the carrying out of DNA's instructions), cause cancer, and decrease sperm production. The second most commonly used kind of dye is anthraquinones, some of which have been linked to cancer, blood, liver, kidney, DNA, and cell issues, and skin irritation. These are not the only toxic dyes. Triphenylmethane dyes can contribute to cancer risks and harm the immune, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems, cells, fetuses, and DNA, and some xanthene dyes can damage DNA, cause cancer, disrupt the nervous system, and irritate the skin, eyes, and respiratory system.
Dyes can also be categorized as disperse and reactive dyes. Disperse dyes are used with synthetic textile materials (like polyester, nylon, spandex, acrylic, acetate, and polyamide). Many of these dyes are irritants and potentially carcinogenic. Disperse dyes are often made from quinoline. Quinoline is linked to irritation, liver and eye harm, and cancer, and it has been detected in fabric. One study found higher concentrations of this toxin in polyester clothing than in cotton, possibly because of quinoline-based dyes' use with synthetic fabrics. Quinoline has even been found in organic cotton clothes. Reactive dyes are used to color plant-based fabric, like cotton, as well as wool and polyamide. They can irritate the skin and cause fetal harm. Other kinds of dyes include basic, direct, and acidic dyes, which are linked to cancer and irritation. Some kinds of dyes can also contain formaldehyde, which is a carcinogen and irritant. Additionally, formaldehyde is used in many other kinds of finishes for clothing, and it can be released when clothes are machine-dried. Some dyes can contain carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
In dye printing, phthalates can be used to bind dyes to fabric. When fabrics are screen-printed or coated in other ways, PVC is applied, along with phthalates to soften the PVC. Phthalates are endocrine disruptors that can reduce both male and female fertility and impact reproduction in other ways, like lowering birth weight. Other endocrine disruptors used in plastic production include BPA and similar chemicals like BPS. These are found in both synthetic and natural fabrics, but they've been detected in high levels in polyester-containing clothing. BPA levels do decrease with washing.
The elements cobalt, copper, chromium, antimony, tin, strontium, cadmium, manganese, nickel, aluminum, boron, and lead have been found in fabrics. In textile production, metals can be used in dyes, synthetic fabric production, flame retardants, and water repellants. You can read about the effects of these elements here and here. Recently, manufacturers have begun adding nanoparticles to textiles. Nanosilver and nano titanium dioxide are used for resisting microorganisms and UV absorption, respectively. Silver nanoparticles can harm cells, and you can read about nano titanium dioxide here.
Residues can also be left of toxic detergents used to clean clothing during manufacturing. Alkylphenol ethoxylates are often used in these detergents, and they can disrupt hormones. Trichloroethylene is the most common way to clean wool before it's turned into fabric. This chemical has been linked to cancer and genetic damage.
There are several different kinds of other treatments and finishes that are applied to clothing and other textiles. Resins including formaldehyde and N-methylol can be used to make fabric wrinkle-resistant. However, both of these chemicals can irritate the skin when the clothes are worn. Irritating epoxy resin can coat clothing tags. Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs), alkylphenol ethoxylates with many functions in textile manufacturing, have been detected in clothing. NPEOs mimic estrogen and can impact brain development. Ultraviolet light absorbers are other types of textile additives. Benzothiazoles and benzotriazoles, which are UV absorbers that can harm the skin, DNA, nervous, endocrine, and respiratory systems, kidneys, and liver, have been found to contaminate clothing. Especially high levels have been found in printed graphics on clothing. Even some organic cotton clothes contained benzothiazoles. Additionally, one study found benzophenone-3, a reproductive and endocrine-disrupting toxin, in 70% of tested fabrics. Chemicals used in the spinning process can also cause health problems. For example, dimethyl formamide is used with acrylic fabric, and it can lead to skin irritation and liver harm. Barium sulfate is an antistatic finisher used with synthetic fabrics which has been linked to skin and nervous system issues. Sizing and desizing agents, which strengthen fabric, can be safer chemicals like starch or more harmful ones like polyester and polyacrylates (which can contain several contaminants linked to issues like DNA damage, cancer, and reproductive harm).
PFAS can be added as a water- or stain-repellant layer on fabric. They are linked to hormone disruption, liver, kidney, and nervous system issues, and cancer, among other concerns. Most rain jackets, parkas, and other waterproof jackets use PFAS coatings. In one study, 25% of the leggings tested contained PFAS. It's not just leggings, however - PFAS have also been detected in pants, shirts, and baby onesies.
Fabrics are also often bleached in the textile production process. Chlorine bleach has been linked to decreased brain weight, body weight, and brain cell count, behavioral changes, hormonal disruptions, cancer, and potentially changes in reproduction and the blood. When peroxide is used instead, EDTA is used to prevent the fibers from degrading. EDTA is an endocrine disruptor.
There are a variety of different flame retardants which can be used in clothing, linked to many different health issues. For example, organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are linked to cancer, developmental and brain issues, and bone damage. Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is a carcinogen used in synthetic textiles. Brominated flame retardants can be endocrine disruptors. For example, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a type of brominated flame retardant, have been linked to hormonal disruptions as well as ADHD and reproductive issues. Some chlorinated flame retardants have been shown to alter immune function and gene expression, cause cell death and cancer, and damage DNA. These are just some of the chemicals clothing is treated with in manufacturing.
Synthetic fabrics release microplastics into the air when clothes are regularly worn. This is because these fabrics are made from plastic. Microplastics are tiny pieces of plastic linked to issues like cell harm, inflammation, and neurotoxicity. They also carry into the body any additives, like endocrine disruptors, dyes, PFAS, or flame retardants, that were put in the plastic. Plastic additives like phthalates have been detected in clothing. Microplastics are also released when clothes are machine-washed and dried, and drying releases microplastics into the air in the room. Inhaling microplastics can lead to respiratory irritation, inflammation, and potentially reproductive issues, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer, and microplastics can also accumulate in dust. Azo dyes have also been found in dust. More microplastics are released from new clothing, so it's better to use clothing for long periods of time. Additionally, in an animal study, wearing polyester underwear led to decreased sperm count and sperm motility and increased sperm abnormalities, while cotton underwear did not lead to these changes.
To make semi-synthetic fabrics like rayon and lyocell, cellulose from wood, bamboo, or cotton is treated with a variety of chemicals to dissolve and then re-form it into fibers. Adverse effects linked to these chemicals include cell death, skin irritation, reproductive problems, and nervous system issues like Parkinson’s disease.
Natural microfibers, like cotton, have also been shown to be released when clothes are worn, which could cause exposure to any chemicals applied to the cotton. Additionally, the fibers themselves may be irritating to the respiratory system, which can contribute to cancer development. However, natural fabrics are still a better choice than synthetic. Pesticides can contaminate natural fabrics because they are applied to the plants and animals (as parasiticides) used to make the fabrics. The insecticide permethrin is an irritant used to treat clothing for insect resistance. Permethrin has been linked to cancer, hormone disruption, and kidney, liver, and reproductive issues.
Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) organic is the strictest certification textile goods can currently have in terms of toxicity. It regulates textile manufacturers through every stage of production. GOTS-certified organic clothing must be organic. GOTS doesn't allow flame retardants, alkylphenol ethoxylates, endocrine disruptors, formaldehyde, PAHs, phthalates, and most other plasticizers, PFAS, microplastics, chlorine bleach, several kinds of harmful dyes, PVC printing, heavy metals, EDTA, and many other toxins to be used in clothing production. Oils used in production must be refined and heavy metal-free. GOTS also sets limits for many toxins so accidental contamination can be avoided. Organic Basics, Q for Quinn, Felina, Pact, and Maggie's Organics are all examples of brands with GOTS-certified products. Q for Quinn and Felina offer options with plant-based dyes or no dye. You can find other GOTS brands here.
Other certifications like OEKO-TEX STANDARD 100, OEKO-TEX LEATHER STANDARD, and bluesign are less stringent and allow more toxins in products. However, these options are better than conventional, uncertified clothing.
These certifications are also not perfect. Not all toxins are banned. Additionally, companies may break the rules of the certification. For example, one study found a GOTS-certified clothing item had higher levels of formaldehyde than GOTS permits. However, buying certified clothing is the best option.
If not buying GOTS-certified clothing, there are still specifications you can look for. Avoid fire retardant-containing clothes. This is of particular concern with children's sleepwear, which is required to either be treated with flame retardants or be snug-fitting, except for clothes for babies 9 months and below. Choose cotton, wool, linen, silk, cashmere, mechanically-extracted bamboo (not rayon or lyocell), or hemp clothing rather than synthetic or semi-synthetic. Look for certified organic fabric to minimize levels of pesticides, but keep in mind that organic doesn't guarantee lower exposure to any other toxins. For example, in one study, not only was formaldehyde found in organic cotton clothes, but it was found in the highest levels in an organic cotton product. Choose fabrics with plant-based dyes when possible to minimize levels of toxic dyes in the product. Lastly, avoid clothing labeled "stain-resistant," "wrinkle-resistant," and "waterproof" when possible because PFAS and formaldehyde may be used to achieve those effects.
Regardless of which clothing you buy, you should wash new clothes and other fabrics before wearing or using them for the first time. Residues from manufacturing or toxin molecules that are less tightly bound to the clothing can be washed off, rather than transferred onto your skin. For example, in one study formaldehyde was detected in clothing before but not after the first wash. Although this doesn't eliminate exposure to all chemicals, it can still reduce it for some.
Although the textile industry still has much to improve on, there are safer options available. Choose GOTS-certified clothing and other textiles when possible, and look for options with indications that they're made using fewer toxins otherwise. This will help lower your exposure to the toxins often contained in conventional products!
Here's where I got some of this info!
Killer Clothes by Brian and Anne Marie Clement
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